Life & Career

• English pianist, teacher and composer; born in Mannheim (Germany) in 1771, but his family settled in London while he was a small child
• Father Wilhelm was a violinist and prominent figure in London concerts; Cramer began on violin but showed greater aptitude for piano; public début at age ten
• 1783: became a student of Muzio Clementi (lessons ended abruptly when Clementi returned to the Continent the next year, but the impact was decisive); also studied theory and composition with Carl Friedrich Abel
• Leading pianist of his generation; one of the first to introduce Beethoven's sonatas to English audiences
• Known for the expressive, singing quality of his tone; helped establish the legato touch as standard (replacing the more detached 18th-century style)
• Like Clementi, involved in music publishing and piano manufacturing; a highly regarded teacher
• Founding member of the London Philharmonic Society and founding board member of the Royal Academy of Music
• Retired from public life in 1835; died in London in 1858, aged 87

Major Works

• Mostly piano music: nine piano concertos, two piano quintets, more than 100 sonatas, many studies, divertimentos, fantasias, rondos, variations
• Some later works use romantic titles: capriccio, impromptu, nocturne, prelude
• Today the studies are his only widely known works

About Cramer's Studies

• An etude (study) is designed to improve a particular aspect of piano playing; the technical difficulty is usually built into the main motive of the piece
• Studio per il pianoforte Op. 30 (published 1804, 42 pieces) was one of the first comprehensive collections of piano studies; Op. 40 followed in 1810; revised and enlarged edition of 1835 brought the total to 100 studies, equalling Clementi's Gradus ad Parnassum
• Cramer wanted students to cultivate a legato style and to prepare for the works of Handel and J.S. Bach
• Op. (opus) means a work or group of works; the opus number identifies the piece
• Study No. 20 aims: finger independence (holding some fingers while lifting others) and sustaining/projecting the outer voices of a 4-part texture

Main Musical Features

• Continuous quaver triplet pulse throughout — typical of Cramer's studies
• Main motive: sustained notes in the outer voices, shorter notes rising and falling by step in the inner voices
• Mode mixture in b.5–8: major 3rd (D♯) but minor 6th (G♮)
• Bar 8 ends on the tonic chord of B major, immediately reinterpreted as the dominant of E minor
• Sequences in the upper voice; dominant pedal in b.17–24 (bass) preparing the return
• New articulation in b.13–14 (rf and staccato); highest point of the study in b.15
• Sudden decrease in volume at b.17; pitch and volume decrease gradually in b.21–23
• Tierce de Picardie (G♯) in b.32; coda has a tonic pedal, alternating tonic 7th and diminished 7th harmony (b.32–33), and a sustained tonic major chord in the last two bars

Structure: Ternary Form with Coda — Modulations

Keys visited: A minor (subdominant), B major/minor (dominant, b.5–8), G major (relative major, b.9–16)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A	1–8	E minor	Main motive. B.1–2 alternate tonic and dominant 7th; b.3–4 transposed up a 4th to A minor; b.5–8 begin on V7 and move towards B major/minor with mode mixture; ends on chord of B major (= V of E minor).
B	9–16	G major	Begins like A; b.11–12 a 2nd lower than b.3–4 (in G major). B.13–14 sequence with rf and staccato; highest point b.15; V7–I cadence in G major b.15–16.
	17–24	A minor → E minor	Transition: variation of main theme in A minor, sequence in upper voice, dominant pedal; sudden drop in volume b.17. B.21–24 prepare return to E minor over dominant pedal (b.22–24).
A	25–32	E minor	Opening theme returns (same as b.1–4 at first); b.29–32 recall b.21–22; V7–I cadence b.31–32 with tierce de Picardie (G♯).
Coda	32–35	E minor	Tierce de Picardie; tonic pedal; tonic 7th ↔ diminished 7th (b.32–33); tonic major chord sustained in last two bars.

Late Classical Style Characteristics

Key Terms

• Con moto: with movement
• ¢ (cut time): two minim beats in each bar; ♩ = 88 means 88 minim beats per minute
• rf (rinforzando): strengthening the tone
• Staccato / staccatissimo: short and detached / very short and detached (the wedge-type sign can indicate either)
• Mode mixture: mixing major and minor forms (here D♯ with G♮)
• Tierce de Picardie: major 3rd in the final tonic chord of a minor piece
• Dominant pedal: sustained/repeated dominant note in the bass
• Sequence: a pattern repeated at a higher or lower pitch

Contemporaries of Cramer

Clementi (Italian, 1752–1832), Dussek (Bohemian, 1760–1812), Beethoven (German, 1770–1827), Hummel (Austrian, 1778–1837), John Field (Irish, 1782–1837), Weber (German, 1786–1826), Kuhlau (German/Danish, 1786–1832), Czerny (Austrian, 1791–1857), Moscheles (Bohemian/German, 1794–1870), Bertini (French, 1798–1876).

Life & Career

• Born on the island of Burano near Venice; father a barber who played violin in theatre orchestras
• Aged 16, composed his first opera La fede nell'incostanza (also known as Gli amici rivali) — a public failure; he then focused on compositional fundamentals with Antonio Lotti
• Within a decade: widespread acclaim across Europe as opera composer and keyboard virtuoso
• Appointed maestro di cappella at St Mark's Basilica, Venice (1762)
• Music director at Catherine II's court, St Petersburg (1765–1768)
• His 1740s collaborations with playwright Carlo Goldoni established dramma giocoso (comic opera with drama) as a dominant operatic form

Major Works

• Opera (100+): L'Arcadia in Brenta (1749), Il mondo della luna (1750), Il filosofo di campagna (1754)
• Keyboard: Over 100 sonatas; sacred music, oratorios
• His comic operas, with ensemble finales and dramatic vitality, significantly influenced later opera buffa
• Closest contemporaries: C.P.E. Bach, J.A. Hasse, G.B. Sammartini

About the Sonata T 12 / Allegro

• Sonata T 12 is a three-movement work. This is the second movement, preceded by a gentle Andantino and followed by a Presto gigue — both in F major (tonic key)
• Exact date of composition unknown; mature style suggests after 1750
• Allegro: fast and lively tempo; also translates as "cheerful," giving a guide to mood
• The movement most strongly resembles the Classical style despite Galuppi's Baroque-era formation
• Exemplified by: light and elegant character, simple chordal accompaniment figures, form that foreshadows mature sonata form

Sonata Form — Variations in this Movement

• Monothematic sonata form: both first and second subjects based on the same melodic material (bar 1–2 material returns at bar 29 in C major). This does NOT mean only one theme — both subjects begin similarly but develop into distinct ideas.
• The theme in bars 21–28 is labelled as part of the transition but is bold and assertive, prominent in Development and Recapitulation; its atypical approach to tonality (half in parallel minor in Exposition; entirely parallel minor in Recapitulation) makes classification complex
• The Recapitulation is a hybrid — it has aspects of standard sonata form AND binary sonata form, interweaving both thematic structures
• Repeat signs enclose the Exposition, and the Development + Recapitulation together

Main Musical Features

• Sequence and pedal point feature extensively
• All chromaticism pertains to modulations and tonicisations
• Bar 85: notes on beat 2 form an augmented sixth interval — suggests motion from an augmented sixth chord to V in D minor
• Dominant pedal in bars 21–28 and 92–99
• Interrupted cadence in bars 33–40 resolves to A♭ major (borrowed from parallel minor)

Structure: Sonata Form — Modulations

Key modulations: C major (dominant), C minor (parallel of dominant), G minor (relative of subdominant), F minor (parallel minor)

Section	Subsection	Bars	Key	Description
Exposition	1st thematic group	1–9²	F major	Main theme: 4-bar phrase + strong perfect cadence; repeated one octave lower.
	1st thematic group	9³–15¹	F major	2nd theme: 2-bar unit with perfect cadence; played three times (2nd time octave lower; 3rd elides into transition).
	Transition	15–21	F→C major	Descending sequence of new material; perfect cadence in C major.
	Transition	21–28	C major→C minor	New 4-bar phrase stated twice (dominant, then parallel minor); over dominant pedal; imperfect cadences.
	2nd thematic group	29–32	C major	Bars 1–2 restated in dominant key. Bars 31–32 = short bridge.
	2nd thematic group	33–40¹	C major→C minor	2nd theme (from bar 9), developed; dramatic interrupted cadence → A♭ major (borrowed chord).
	2nd thematic group	40–44	C minor	Bridging passage; sequential descent; imperfect cadence.
	2nd thematic group	45–53	C major	2nd theme repeated; strong perfect cadence.
Development	—	54–60¹	C major	Truncated restatement of opening theme in dominant, eliding into new material.
	—	60–68	C→C minor→G minor	Modulating sequence; imperfect cadence in G minor.
	—	69–76	G minor→F major	Transition theme (bars 21–28) stated twice; returns to tonic with imperfect cadence.
Recapitulation	1st/2nd thematic group	77–80¹	F major	Opening theme restated in tonic (different presentation).
		80–91	F major→C major	Bridging passage; two modulating sequences (B♭, G minor, C, D minor; then similar).
		92–99	F minor	Transition theme (21–28) restated entirely in parallel minor.
		100–107¹	F major→F minor	2nd theme of 2nd thematic group, transposed to tonic.
		107–111	F minor	Restatement of bars 40–44 in parallel minor.
		112–121	F major	2nd theme of 2nd group in tonic; emphatic perfect cadence.

Galant / Transitional Style Characteristics

Key Terms

• Allegro: fast and lively; also means "cheerful"
• Monothematic sonata form: both subjects derived from the same melodic material
• Dramma giocoso: "drama with jokes" — comic opera subgenre Galuppi helped establish
• Galant style: singable melodies, regular phrasing, light accompaniment — early Classical aesthetic
• Dominant pedal: sustained bass note on the dominant, creating tension/expectation
• Augmented sixth chord: chromatic chord containing an augmented 6th above the bass; leads to dominant

Contemporaries of Galuppi

C.P.E. Bach (German, 1714–1788), G.B. Sammartini (Italian, 1700–1775), Johann Adolph Hasse (German, 1699–1783), early Haydn (Austrian, 1732–1809), early Mozart (Austrian, 1756–1791).

Life & Career

• Born in Poland; astonishing early talent in piano playing and improvisation/composition (little distinction between the two for him)
• Studied Bach and the Viennese Classics with violinist Wojciech Zwyny, and harmony and composition with Jozef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory
• First public concert in 1818; a composition published when he was 15; toured, performing virtuosic works for piano and orchestra
• Left Warsaw in 1830; after a brief period in Vienna, settled in Paris
• Paris in the 1830s favoured virtuosity and spectacle (Liszt, Thalberg, Herz); Chopin grew dissatisfied and virtually renounced his concert career, playing in the salons of wealthy aristocrats and giving piano lessons — his style became more intimate while remaining technically demanding
• Met George Sand (pen-name of a novelist) in 1836; lived together 1838–1847, including a stay at Majorca where poor weather affected his fragile health
• Died of tuberculosis at the age of 39

Major Works

• Piano and orchestra: two concertos, Krakowiak, Variations on "La ci darem"
• Chamber / songs: songs, Piano Trio, Cello Sonata
• Piano solo: Ballades, Impromptus, Mazurkas, Nocturnes, Polonaises, Preludes, Scherzos, Sonatas, Waltzes
• All his compositions involve the piano; no purely symphonic music; many are small-scale works (Mazurkas, Preludes)

About the Waltz in F minor, Op. 70 No. 2

• A waltz (French: valse) is a ballroom dance in triple time that probably originated in the German Ländler; very popular in the 19th century (also Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, Brahms, Johann Strauss)
• Waltz accompaniment: one chord per bar — bass note on beat 1, other chord notes on beats 2 and 3
• Chopin wrote more than twenty waltzes (some teenage ones are lost); they were popular in aristocratic salons and used as teaching pieces
• Composed in 1841 but not published until several years after his death — hence Op. posth. (posthumous)
• Binary form that ends in the relative major (A♭) rather than the tonic
• Chopin's manuscript ends at b.72; the edition by Julian Fontana (a copyist) reprises the first half of A and all of B, giving double binary (ABAB), with a more elaborate bass and extra expression markings
• Tempo giusto = at the appropriate speed for the style (a regular waltz speed); can also mean strict time

Main Musical Features

• Lyrical, delicately ornamented RH melody over a characteristic waltz accompaniment (homophonic)
• Section A: imperfect cadence in F minor (b.1–8); theme then begins in A♭ major (relative major) and modulates to E♭ major with a dominant pedal in b.12–17, perfect cadence b.19–20
• Section B: A♭ major; b.49–56 modulates to C minor (dominant)
• Frequent repetition and little thematic development; simple AB structure
• Frequent use of pedal; rich harmonies with some chromaticism; intimate, highly expressive character

Structure: Binary Form — Modulations

Keys: F minor (tonic), A♭ major (relative major), E♭ major (dominant of A♭), C minor (dominant)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A	1–8	F minor	Lyrical, delicately ornamented RH melody over waltz accompaniment; ends with imperfect cadence.
	9–20	A♭ major → E♭ major	Opening theme in A♭ (relative major), then modulates to E♭; dominant pedal b.12–17; perfect cadence b.19–20.
	21–28	F minor	Repeat of b.1–8.
	29–40	A♭ → E♭ major	Repeat of b.9–20.
B	41–48	A♭ major	Ends with a perfect cadence.
	49–56	→ C minor	Modulates to C minor (dominant); perfect cadence.
	57–64	A♭ major	Repeat of b.41–48.
	65–72	A♭ major	Remains in A♭ major; ends with a perfect cadence (end of Chopin's manuscript).

Romantic Period Characteristics

Chopin's Musical Style

Composed at the piano; many pieces conceived as improvisations and written down later. Admired the flowing melodies of the Italian opera composer Bellini and emulated them. Explored the sustaining pedal and the wider range (over six octaves) of 19th-century pianos. Melodies demand a smooth cantabile tone; harmonies are rich and colourful, often with unusual key relationships.

Key Terms

• Tempo giusto: at the appropriate speed for the style (regular waltz speed)
• Waltz / valse: ballroom dance in triple time
• Ländler: old German dance from which the waltz probably originated
• Op. posth.: published after the composer's death
• Binary form: AB; here ends in the relative major rather than the tonic
• Double binary: ABAB — Fontana's edition repeats part of A and all of B
• Dominant pedal: sustained bass note on the dominant (b.12–17)
• Cantabile: in a singing style

Contemporaries of Chopin

French: Berlioz, Alkan, Gounod. Others: Mendelssohn (German), Bellini (Italian), Liszt (Hungarian), Robert Schumann (German); also Thalberg and Herz.

Life & Career

• Born in South Australia; child prodigy who studied at the Elder Conservatorium in Adelaide
• Won scholarship to the Royal College of Music, London
• Reportedly expelled from a composition class with Sir Charles Villiers Stanford for "too-extreme harmonic experiments" — reflects his unconventional spirit
• Returned to Adelaide; became a central figure in the city's musical life
• Founded an orchestra in 1935 (often called the "Brewster-Jones Symphony Orchestra") which championed contemporary French and Russian music
• Influenced by: Debussy, Ravel, Scriabin, and Roslavets; the natural sounds of the Australian bush; Aboriginal songs and folklore (through a European lens)
• His music and legacy as an important figure in early Australian Modernism has only recently been reevaluated
• Made no attempts to have his manuscripts published; music known only to his inner circle during his lifetime

Major Works

• Orchestral: Symphonic poem Australia felix
• Piano: Australian bird call impressions (73 pieces based on calls of South Australian birds — composed in the 1920s); experimental Formula series
• The complete set of Australian bird call impressions was eventually published more than 50 years after Brewster-Jones's death; performed and recorded by Australian composer-pianist Larry Sitsky
• His Australian bird call impressions predates Olivier Messiaen's Catalogue d'oiseaux (a famous collection of birdsong-based piano works) by more than thirty years

About Rosella's Wooing

• No. 28 from Australian bird call impressions — 73 pieces for solo piano based on calls of South Australian birds captured in and around Adelaide and the Flinders Ranges
• Uses a repeated-note figure featuring a descending perfect fourth to imitate the call of the rosella (a beloved Australian native parrot)
• The Modernist style is exemplified by: fragmented melodic writing, jazz-inflected harmony, free approach to chromaticism
• The incorporation of birdsong gives the melody a slightly unpredictable quality — much fragmentation and irregular phrase lengths

Main Musical Features

• Descending-fifths (circle-of-fifths) progressions throughout section A: opening bars = II⁷–V–I (first two chords over dominant pedal); bars 6–8 (also 14–16, 34–36) = V⁷b/VI–VI–II⁷–V–I
• Frequent use of seventh chords and occasional extended chords (bar 17 = A¹³ — first chord of section B) — inflects the work with jazz influence
• Section A shows minimal chromaticism; section B uses a free approach to chromaticism with incidental chords from chromatic passing notes (bars 19, 23)
• Section B: abrupt modulation to D major — a distantly related key. Enharmonic spelling: G♭ appears as F# major; C# dominant seventh is an enharmonically spelled V⁷ chord in G♭ major
• Bars 25–26: G# over D major triad in tonally ambiguous fashion — brings both key centres into direct confrontation before the return of G♭
• Pentatonic flourish in the left hand (bar 3 area) — links to Australian landscape influence
• Section A is an exact repeat of bars 1–8 at bars 9–16

Structure: Ternary Form

Only modulation: to the distant key of D major (enharmonic relationship to G♭)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A	1–4	G♭ major	First 4-bar phrase. Bar 1–2: birdsong motive (1 bar, repeated exactly). Bar 3: similar start, then pentatonic LH flourish + descending sequence → imperfect cadence bar 4.
	5–8	G♭ major	Second 4-bar phrase. New 1-bar motive (bars 5–6); birdsong motive transferred to LH bar 7; diatonic flourish; strong perfect cadence bar 8.
	9–16	G♭ major	Exact repeat of bars 1–8.
B	17–20	D major	Birdsong motive at same sounding pitches (F# and C#, enharmonic to G♭ and D♭). Descending sequence → perfect cadence.
	21–24	D major	Similar to bars 17–20 but varied in bar 3 — more chromaticism; no clear cadence.
	25–28	D major vs G♭	Birdsong motive over ambiguous harmony — D major and G♭ major in conflict (enharmonically F# major). Ends with C# dominant 7th (V⁷ in G♭ major); chromatic flourish.
A	29–36	G♭ major	Exact repeat of bars 1–8.

Modernist / 20th-Century Characteristics

Key Terms

• Modernism: early 20th-century style of radical innovation — composers challenged or abandoned traditional tonality, experimented with form and rhythm, incorporated folk or non-Western elements
• Birdsong transcription: long tradition from Janequin, Vivaldi, Beethoven, Ravel to Messiaen and recent Australian composers
• Circle of fifths (descending fifths) progression: chord roots fall a 5th (or rise a 4th), giving strong harmonic direction (II–V–I etc.)
• Extended chord: chord with notes beyond the 7th (9th, 11th, 13th)
• Enharmonic equivalence: same sounding pitch, different written name (G♭ = F#; D♭ = C#)
• Chromatic passing note / auxiliary note: note using an accidental, moving by semitone
• Pentatonic scale: 5-note scale — avoids harsh dissonance; here as a LH flourish
• Dominant pedal: sustained bass dominant note creating expectation

Birdsong in Classical Music

The tradition of representing birdsong in classical music dates before the Baroque period, with notable examples by Janequin, Vivaldi, Handel, Beethoven, Ravel, and Messiaen. Australian composers including Michael Hannan, John Rodgers, and Hollis Taylor have continued the tradition. Brewster-Jones's collection preceded Messiaen's famous Catalogue d'oiseaux (1956–58) by over thirty years.

Contemporaries of Brewster-Jones

Debussy (French, 1862–1918), Ravel (French, 1875–1937), Scriabin (Russian, 1872–1915), Percy Grainger (Australian, 1882–1961), Bela Bartók (Hungarian, 1881–1945), Margaret Sutherland (Australian, 1897–1984).

The Harpsichord

• In use approximately 1400–1800; compass up to 5 octaves
• Strings are plucked by a quill or leather plectrum — no dynamic shading by touch alone
• Some have two (occasionally three) manuals with stops/couplers for different tone and volume
• Articulation and arpeggiation of chords were important for achieving accentuation
• The virginal and spinet are related instruments
• Was the predominant stringed keyboard instrument before the piano's development; Bach composed for it

The Clavichord

• In use approximately 1400–1800; small, rectangular; compass up to 5 octaves
• Strings struck by a brass tangent (which also divides and dampens the string)
• Capable of dynamic shading; can produce Bebung (vibrato) on sustained notes
• Very soft tone — limited to solo performance in a small room
• Bach's favourite keyboard instrument (according to his first biographer, Forkel)

The Fortepiano

• The late 18th-century piano, sometimes called fortepiano to distinguish it from the modern instrument
• Wood frame (not iron); leather hammers (not felt); strings all parallel (no overstringing); range ~5½ octaves
• Sustaining pedal often operated by the knee
• Lighter tone, less sustaining power than the modern piano
• Preferred by C.P.E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart and their contemporaries

Development of the Modern Piano

• 1700: First piano invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence — "gravicembalo col piano e forte"
• 1780s: Range increases to 5½ octaves
• 1820s: Metal frames begin to be used
• 1821: Double-escapement action patented by Sébastien Erard — faster note repetition
• 1822: Range reaches 7 octaves
• 1826: Felt hammer covering patented by Henri Pape, Paris
• 1859: Overstringing patented by Henry Steinway Jr. — longer, thicker strings; richer tone
• 1874: Sostenuto (selective sustain) pedal patented by Albert Steinway
• 19th century: iron frame, felt hammers, 7-octave range, overstrung bass = modern piano capable of filling concert halls

Musical Style Periods — Quick Reference

Period	Dates	Key Features	Composers
Baroque	c.1600–1750	Polyphonic; ornamentation; basso continuo; terraced dynamics; motoric rhythm; sequences; closely related modulations	Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Scarlatti, Telemann, Rameau
Classical	c.1750–1810	Homophonic; light/elegant; balanced short phrases; Alberti bass; diatonic harmonies; sonata form; closely related modulations	Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Clementi, Hummel
Romantic	c.1810–1900	Expressive; rubato; chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); lyrical melodies; wide dynamic range; modulations by 3rds; pedal essential; character pieces	Mendelssohn, R. Schumann, C. Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Grieg
Modernist / 20th C.	c.1900–	Diverse styles; challenged/abandoned tonality; complex rhythms; folk/non-Western influences; jazz inflections; wide dynamic range; experimentation	Debussy, Ravel, Bartók, Scriabin, Prokofiev, Messiaen, Brewster-Jones

Key Theory Terms for the Exam

• Rounded binary: ABA′ — falls into two main sections (often with repeat signs); A theme returns midway through 2nd section; ends in tonic.
• Binary: AB — two sections, either or both may be repeated; first usually ends in the dominant or relative major, second in the tonic. Chopin's Waltz Op. 70 No. 2 is binary but ends in the relative major (double binary ABAB in the Fontana edition).
• Ternary: ABA — three sections; B contrasting, usually different key; A returns (often varied). Used by Cramer (Study No. 20, with coda) and Brewster-Jones.
• Sonata form: Exposition → Development → Recapitulation. Exposition has 2 thematic groups (tonic + related key). Recapitulation brings all back in tonic. Used by Galuppi.
• Sequence: repetition of a musical pattern at a higher or lower pitch
• Modulation: change of key during a piece; confirmed by a dominant-tonic cadence in the new key
• Pedal point: sustained or repeated note (usually bass); dominant pedal = expectation; tonic pedal = stability
• Appoggiatura: non-chord note resolving by step (usually down); expressive; accented
• Augmented sixth chord: chromatic chord containing augmented 6th above bass; resolves to dominant; types: Italian, French, German
• Secondary dominant: chord functioning temporarily as V of a chord other than the tonic
• Borrowed chord: chord taken from the parallel major or minor key
• Circle of fifths: chord roots fall a 5th (or rise a 4th); gives strong harmonic direction (vi–ii–V–I etc.)